Inclusion des migrants, des réfugiés, des demandeurs d'asile, des minorités et des groupes vulnérables

The inclusion of migrants and asylum seekers is a strongly debated issue in Belgium, and continues to face many challenges, particularly regarding arrivals from outside Europe. There has been progress in the areas put forward in the National Reform Programme.[1] Firstly, to cope with the influx of refugees from Ukraine after Russia’s invasion in 2022, several working groups were established in Brussels to focus on areas such as housing, job market integration, health, and social protection. Each includes a member of the Ukrainian community to ensure a direct link with the refugees. The Ukraine Voices Refugee Committee, supported by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), set up a community centre serving around 250 Ukrainians every day. By January 2023, around 10,700 Ukrainians were registered in the Brussels region. An accommodation scheme, which involved both private citizens and the region’s municipalities, housed all refugees, and professional integration and training initiatives reached 2,420 people. However, these positive measures mainly concern European – that is, Ukrainian – migrants and have not been extended to migrant groups from outside Europe.

Several measures were taken in 2023 to promote the inclusion of all migrants in the job market and in society in general. These included a draft ordinance on economic migration to simplify work permits and professional cards for non-European workers. The public sector has been encouraged to develop pathways to employment for young NEETs (those not in Education, Employment, or Training), particularly those with few qualifications, and for immigrants. However, disparities persist, particularly for women born outside the EU. The Belgian National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) includes reforms to enhance discrimination testing and support sectoral anti-discrimination policies, particularly in Flanders [2]. However, civil society experts argue that these are short-term measures and highlight the need for long-term projects and structural funding to effectively address the inclusion of migrants and asylum seekers.

The proper inclusion of vulnerable populations is hindered by several factors. The Federal Agency for the Reception of Asylum Seekers (Fédasil) is overwhelmed by the growing number of cases it has to process, and its lack of resources hinders its ability to respond adequately to the needs of migrants.[3] [4] For example, an insufficient budget for providing appropriate reception services has resulted in an increased workload and deplorable working conditions [5].The lack of reception facilities is a major problem, particularly in Brussels, and has resulted in migrants living in precarious conditions and having only limited access to medical care, thus jeopardising their access to fundamental rights.

Inclusion in the job market is also a problem, particularly for immigrant women, for whom obstacles include overqualification. An analysis of 35 academic articles authored by Belgian researchers highlights the persistent challenges of integrating immigrants into the labour market. Even when employed, first-generation immigrants still fare worse than native Belgians, and children born in Belgium to immigrant parents also face difficulties despite their local education.[6] The Turkish, Moroccan, Southern European, Sub-Saharan and other such communities are more likely than average to hold blue-collar jobs. This ethnic segregation of the labour market creates barriers to accessing quality jobs and underscores the need for measures to promote greater equality of opportunity in the labour market. [7]

The situation for migrants, especially single men, is exacerbated by a lack of political will, inadequate resources, and ineffective management. This led to a measure where reception would be granted only  to women and children, leaving out single adult men [8] [9]. Such a policy poses a threat to democracy and the rule of law [10] [11]. The Belgian state has been condemned in court many times for failing in its asylum obligations, and the Secretary of State for Asylum and Migration stated that it was a deliberate policy to enforce practices discriminating adult men. Belgium received 148 condemnations in a single day from the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) for its failures in migrant reception, including for providing insufficient accommodation and precarious living conditions [12]. These condemnations underscore a pressing need for reforms to improve Belgium's migrant reception system.

[1] Federal Government (2023), National Reform Program: https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/facc7756-eeed-45b8-9f9f-9b7453ddbb6b_en?filename=Belgium_NRP_2023_EN.pdf

[2] European Commission (2023), 2023 Country Report Belgium: https://economy-finance.ec.europa.eu/document/download/f44ddf3f-7b94-4b49-bcbf-2e4f00af9c1b_en?filename=ip225_en.pdf

[3] RTL (2022), Flux migratoires: appel à l'aide des directeurs des centres Fedasil, Flux migratoires: appel à l'aide des directeurs des centres Fedasil: https://www.rtl.be/page-videos/belgique/societe/flux-migratoires-appel-laide-des-directeurs-des-centres-fedasil/2022-10-20/video/495076

[4] Médecins du Monde (2024), La Justice autorise des ONG à saisir les comptes de Fedasil  https://medecinsdumonde.be/actualites-publications/actualites/la-justice-autorise-des-ong-a-saisir-les-comptes-de-fedasil#:~:text=La%20Cour%20d'Appel%20de,sur%20les%20comptes%20de%20Fedasil

[5] 7sur7 (2024), Malaise chez Fedasil: Le personnel doit travailler dans des conditions indignes: https://www.7sur7.be/belgique/malaise-chez-fedasil-le-personnel-doit-travailler-dans-des-conditions-indignes~af926658/?referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bing.com%2F

[6] RTBF (2024),  L'intégration des immigrés et de leurs enfants sur le marché du travail reste difficile: https://www.rtbf.be/article/l-integration-des-immigres-et-de-leursenfants-surle-marche-du-travail-reste-difficile-11345684

[7] CEPAG (2010), Etude statistique sur les inégalités à l’emploi en Wallonie: https://www.cepag.be/sites/default/files/publications/inegalites_a_lemploi.pdf

[8] RTL (2023), La Belgique n'accueillera plus les hommes seuls, demandeurs d'asile: "Ce n'est pas vraiment facile mais qu'allons-nous faire?: https://www.rtl.be/actu/belgique/societe/la-belgique-naccueillera-plus-les-hommes-seuls-demandeurs-dasile-ce-nest-pas/2023-09-06/article/584997

[9] TV5MONDE (2023), La Belgique condamnée pour "refus caractérisé" d'héberger un demandeur d'asile: https://information.tv5monde.com/international/la-belgique-condamnee-pour-refus-caracterise-dheberger-un-demandeur-dasile-2658769

[10] Centre Avec (2023), Crise de l’Accueil Des Demandeurs d’Asile : était-elle inévitable?:  https://www.centreavec.be/publication/crise-de-laccueil-des-demandeurs-dasile-etait-elle-inevitable/#:~:text=En%20ao%C3%BBt%202023%2C%201.799%20personnes,pas%20plus%20de%206%20mois.

[11] Le Soir (2023), Migration : qu’allons-nous pouvoir dire à nos étudiants?:  https://www.lesoir.be/538243/article/2023-09-20/migration-quallons-nous-pouvoir-dire-nos-etudiants

[12] Le Soir (2022), Chaos migratoire: la Belgique condamnée 148 fois par la CEDH en une

Journée: https://www.lesoir.be/477489/article/2022-11-16/chaos-migratoire-la-belgiquecondamnee-148-fois-par-la-cedh-en-une-journee

Salaires adéquats

The NSG reports discrepancies in wages among Belgium’s three regions, with Wallonia's slightly lower than those in Flanders and Brussels [1]. Since 2021, high inflation has driven up the cost of living and eroded purchasing power for most people in Belgium [2]. To mitigate the impact of price rises, the country uses an indexation system, which adjusts incomes when inflation surpasses a specified threshold, ensuring they keep pace with rising living costs. In November 2022, the federal government proposed to restart stalled wage negotiations, preserving automatic indexation and pay-scale increases while setting the wage margin at 0% for 2023 and 2024. The proposal allows a performance-based one-off bonus of up to €750, depending on company profits, with details to be negotiated at the sectoral level. This plan maintains wage protection against inflation but may not fully address rising living costs, and its effectiveness depends on sectoral negotiations and company performance [3] .

Despite its benefits, Belgium's indexation system has come under scrutiny. The European Commission's assessment of Belgium's 2023 National Reform Programme under the European Semester framework notes that, while the system has not caused excessive wage growth recently, it becomes a concern during periods of high inflation.[4] While high-profit margins in certain sectors initially helped absorb increased labour costs, these margins had decreased unevenly by 2022. Nominal wage increases could potentially surpass those in neighbouring countries due to the high inflation in 2022 and 2023, which might make Belgian companies less competitive but which protects workers' purchasing power. Despite its success in maintaining wage levels, Belgium's indexation system is also a source of inequality, as many individuals are not covered by the system or by other government measures to ease the impact of inflation. Notably, groups such as the self-employed and some not-for-profit organisations do not fully benefit from these adjustments (depending on the ”commission paritaire”, the joint committe), so indexation does not always translate into proportional increases in net salaries and disposable income.[5] This exacerbates disparities in economic security and purchasing power.

In this way, even if poverty figures – as measured by the Monetary Poverty Indicator – are stable, the most vulnerable groups continue to struggle. Low-income households are disproportionately affected by rising costs, especially for energy and food. The energy costs of the poorest 25% of households have risen by 60 percentage points more than those of the richest 25%. Inflation has hit poorer households the hardest, as a higher proportion of their total expenditure goes on essentials such as food, electricity, gas, and heating. Inflation in the consumption basket of those not qualifying  for the social tariff (a reduced tariff for energy and gas costs) due to administrative conditions but belonging to the lower-income population,  reached 9.7%, while that for the wealthiest was just 7.9%.[6] This has led to a steady rise in the number of Belgians reporting difficulty in meeting day-to-day needs, indicating widespread economic struggles similar to long-standing poverty. [7]

Bonnes pratiques

A Collective Labour Agreement (CLA) is a written agreement between trade unions representing workers and employers or employers' associations.[8] In Belgium, CLAs are fundamental instruments that not only establish working conditions and industrial relations within a sector or company but also ensure that wages and employment standards are fair and consistent across industries. These agreements are negotiated within the framework of Joint Committees ("commissions paritaires"), which are sector-specific bodies where employers and employee representatives collaborate to reach a consensus.

CLAs in Belgium are legally binding and play a critical role in protecting workers' rights by stipulating conditions such as working hours, minimum wages, health and safety measures, and job security. They often include provisions for additional benefits such as paid leave, health insurance, and pensions, thereby enhancing the overall welfare of employees. Furthermore, CLAs ensure the stability of industrial relations by fostering continuous social dialogue between labour representatives and employers, helping to prevent conflicts and maintain a balanced power dynamic in the workplace.

[1] Iweps (2024), SALAIRES MENSUELS BRUTS DES SALARIÉS OCCUPÉS À TEMPS PLEIN: https://www.iweps.be/indicateur-statistique/salaires-mensuels-bruts-moyens/#:~:text=En%202021%2C%20le%20salaire%20mensuel

[2] Service de lutte contre la pauvreté, la précarité et l’exclusion sociale (2023), La dimension financière de la pauvreté: https://luttepauvrete.be/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2024/01/Rapport-bisannuel-2022-2023-La-dimension-financiere-de-la-pauvrete-FR-.pdf

[3] Federal Government (2023), National Reform Program: https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/facc7756-eeed-45b8-9f9f-9b7453ddbb6b_en?filename=Belgium_NRP_2023_EN.pdf

[4] European Commission (2023), 2023 Country Report – Belgium: https://economy-finance.ec.europa.eu/publications/2023-country-report-belgium_en

[5] Service de lutte contre la pauvreté, la précarité et l’exclusion sociale (2023), La dimension financière de la pauvreté: https://luttepauvrete.be/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2024/01/Rapport-bisannuel-2022-2023-La-dimension-financiere-de-la-pauvrete-FR-.pdf

[6] Economie (2024), Tarif social pour l'énergie pour les personnes bénéficiant d’une intervention majorée: https://economie.fgov.be/fr/themes/energie/prix-de-lenergie/tarif-social-pour-lenergie/tarif-social-pour-lenergie#:~:text=31%20d%C3%A9cembre%202022.-,vous%20devenez%20une%20personne%20ayant%20droit%20%C3%A0%20l'intervention%20major%C3%A9e,est%20aussi%20valable%20en%202023

[7] STATBEL (2023), Les Belges ont toujours plus de mal à joindre les deux bouts/ https://statbel.fgov.be/fr/nouvelles/les-belges-ont-toujours-plus-de-mal-joindre-les-deux-bouts

[8] Service Public Fédéral Emploi, Travail et Concertation sociale (2024), Conventions collectives de travail (CCT): https://emploi.belgique.be/fr/themes/commissions-paritaires-et-conventions-collectives-de-travail-cct/conventions-collectives-de

Logement

Access to decent housing remains a critical issue in Belgium, the NSG reports. Social housing units make up only 6.81% of the housing stock which is insufficient to meet the growing demand.[1] Although there has been a slight increase, it does not match the rise in homes on the private market or the surge in demand for social housing, especially in Brussels. [2] [3] Property market prices and the energy crisis make the current situation more urgent. In the Brussels region alone, there are an estimated 5,000 homeless people, and nearly 52,000 households are on the waiting list for social housing – twice as many requests as offers [4]. In 2023, the Belgian government prioritised housing with several policies. A significant effort was made by the government to renovate social housing, with €30 million invested and a 20 % increase in subsidies for energy-efficiency measures taken by associations and local authorities.[5] Energy-related measures included reducing VAT on gas and electricity, extending the social energy tariff, and proposing a Royal Decree to support the replacement of heating systems. These initiatives primarily focused on combating fuel poverty to make housing more affordable.

At the same time, a series of obstacles have been identified, mainly in Flanders. Restrictive conditions on the allocation of social housing make it difficult to access for the poorest sections of the population. Other conditionalities, such as language ability or jobseeker status, reinforce pre-existing inequalities.[6] Finally, a structural lack of human and financial support for public services and social organisations delays social correction procedures, making it more difficult to obtain social housing. Although stricter conditionalities and allocation rules have increased controls and therefore reduced discrimination in social housing these controls have also made it harder for some minorities to access social housing, partly due to language barriers.[7] While legislation has significantly reduced institutionalised discrimination in social housing, the private sector remains problematic and is the source of 81% of discrimination cases (related to financial status, ethnicity, or disability).[8] The number of student housing units is insufficient, and rents are rising. Financial insecurity and the energy crisis are driving more people to live together, but the legal status of cohabitation is unfair and can have serious financial consequences.[9] Benefits and social assistance are based on total household income, which has an impact on women's roles in the labour market and in the family, reinforcing everyday inequalities and reducing financial independence.

Bonnes pratiques

Housing First takes an innovative approach to help the most vulnerable homeless people – who often face problems of physical or mental health or substance abuse – to integrate socially.[10] Unlike traditional methods of integration, which impose numerous conditions and stages, Housing First makes the provision of housing a priority, and there are no requirements beyond those applicable to all tenants. The organisation allocates a support team to accompany the tenant in all aspects of their life to ensure residential stability.

Accès aux soins de santé

Belgium faces significant challenges in access to affordable healthcare. The country has one of the highest rates of catastrophic personal health spending (when out-of-pocket payments greater than 40% of capacity to pay for health care) [11] in Western Europe, according to a 2023 report by the World Health Organization . Out-of-pocket healthcare costs are so high that the households in question often cannot afford basic needs such as food, housing, and heating.[12]

The primary drivers of these costs include medical products, such as glasses and hearing aids, and inpatient care. Poorer households are particularly burdened by the costs of outpatient care, medicines, and diagnostic tests. Rather than providing outpatient care as a benefit in kind, Belgium has until recently reimbursed it retrospectively, which exacerbates financial strain. Since 2022, most healthcare providers have been reimbursed directly by patients’ health insurance companies (mutuelles), so patients pay only their share of medical costs at the time of treatment. However, this arrangement (called third-party arrangement) is a choice made by the healthcare providers. Other recent government efforts include freezing annual co-payment limits and extending dental care coverage, but significant barriers remain.

Despite being entitled to medical aid or emergency medical assistance migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers face challenges in accessing healthcare.[13] Factors include the complexity of the Belgian healthcare system and the increasing digitisation of services. Obstacles such as a lack of funds and information, the fear of arrest, language barriers, and complex administrative procedures, can lead to delays and the renunciation of medical care.[14] [15] Moreover, a growing reliance on online services can exclude those without the necessary digital skills, limiting access to essential health information and services. Despite the European Union's recommendations to promote the integration of third-country nationals, Belgium struggles to harmonise its policies and allocate sufficient resources to ensure equitable healthcare access for migrants. A lack of political will has led to gaps in the implementation of inclusive and effective policies. [16]

[1] Le soir (2024), En 20 ans, le nombre de logements sociaux a moins vite progressé que le marché privé: https://www.lesoir.be/567753/article/2024-02-12/en-20-ansle-nombre-de-logements-sociaux-moins-vite-progresse-que-le-marche

[2] Service de lutte contre la pauvreté, la précarité et l’exclusion sociale (2016), Des faits et des chiffres: logements sociaux: https://luttepauvrete.be/des-faits-et-des-chiffres/des-faits-et-des-chiffres-logements-sociaux/

[3] La RTBF (2024), Nous avons cinq demandes par jour : les demandes pour les logements sociaux explosent dans certaines communes: https://www.rtbf.be/article/nousavons-cinq-demandes-par-jour-les-demandes-pour-les-logements-sociaux-explosent-danscertaines-communes-11205750

[4] JOC (2024), Crise du logement ou crise de l’accès au logement:  https://joc.be/crise-du-logement-ou-crise-de-lacces-au-logement/

[5] Service de lutte contre la pauvreté, la précarité et l’exclusion sociale (2023), La dimension financière de la pauvreté: https://luttepauvrete.be/des-faits-et-des-chiffres/

[6] SPF sécurité sociale (2022), Le non-recours à l'aide sociale en Belgique : propositions politiques, Fin du projet BELMOD:  https://socialsecurity.belgium.be/sites/default/files/content/docs/fr/publications/belmod-rapport-final-fr.pdf

[7] Erasmus Hogeschool Brussel – SteR Stedenbouw en Ruimtelijke Planning (2010), Diversité et discrimination dans le logement social: pour une approche critique de la «mixité sociale: https://www.unia.be/files/Documenten/Publicaties_docs/Mixite_FR_DEF.pdf

[8] Walloon Government (2024), Stop à la discrimination dans l’accès au logement: https://www.wallonie.be/fr/actualites/stop-la-discrimination-dans-lacces-au-logement

[9] FGTB (2023), Abolissons le statut de cohabitant: https://fgtb.be/abolissons-le-statut-de-cohabitant

[10] Service public de programmation Intégration sociale (SPP IS) (2024), Housing First Belgium: https://www.mi-is.be/fr/themes/lutter-contre-le-sans-abrisme-et-labsence-de-chez-soi/housing-first-belgium

[11] WHO (2023), Households with out-of-pocket payments greater than 40% of capacity to pay for healthcare: https://www.who.int/data/gho/indicator-metadata-registry/imr-details/4989

[12] WHO (2023), Can people afford to pay for health care? New evidence on financial protection in Belgium:  https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/9789289058599

[13] Bruxelles-J (2024), Qui a droit à l’Aide Médicale Urgente (AMU)?: https://www.bruxelles-j.be/droits-sociaux/obtenir-de-laide-du-cpas/comment-le-cpas-peut-il-aider-les-personnes-qui-sont-en-sejour-illegal-en-belgique-les-sans-papiers/  

[14] Médecins du Monde (YEAR), Aux côtés des migrant·e·s en Belgique », Aux côtés des migrant·e·s en Belgique: https://medecinsdumonde.be/regions/belgique

[15] European Social Observatory (2020), Les inégalités d'accès aux soins de santé en Belgique: https://www.ose.be/sites/default/files/publications/2020_SC_RB_NIHDI-Report_Synthese_FR_1.pdf

[16] Centre Avec (2023), Crise de l’Accueil Des Demandeurs d’Asile : était-elle inévitable?: https://www.centreavec.be/publication/crise-de-laccueil-des-demandeurs-dasile-etait-elle-inevitable/#:~:text=En%20ao%C3%BBt%202023%2C%201.799%20personnes,pas%20plus%20de%206%20mois.

Enabling space for civil society

The CIVICUS Monitor classifies Belgium's civic space as "Narrowed," a status that has remained unchanged since 2021.[1] This classification indicates that, while individuals and civil society organizations can exercise their rights to freedom of association, peaceful assembly, and expression, these rights are often violated through harassment, arrests, or assaults of critics of those in power, as well as through excessive force during protests and political pressure on the media. This classification is down from Belgium’s classification of "Open" in the two previous years, indicating a slight decrease in the openness of civic space. Belgium's strong associative culture is supported by two key laws, the NSG reports. The May 24, 1921 law guaranteed freedom of association, and the June 27, 1921 law granted civil status to non-profit associations (ASBL) and public utility establishments, allowing them to function as independent legal entities with legal protection. Today, freedom of association in Belgium is widely accepted and respected. Belgian associations can be critical of public authorities even when they are dependent on them for public funding, illustrating a freedom of expression essential to the maintenance of democratic values.[2]

However, freedoms are never immutable and require constant vigilance. Some aspects of the laws under which associations work have been changed in ways that weaken them and make them vulnerable. Since January 2024, associations and companies in Belgium have been governed by the same legal framework, the Code des Sociétés et des Associations (CSA). Associations must now align their articles of association with the CSA, which allows them, under certain conditions, to pursue commercial activities as their main focus. This merging of statutes risks undermining the essence of non-profit associations (ASBL), which is their members’ commitment to the public good. It reflects the increasing influence of neoliberalism on the associative sector and may affect their governance. In addition, the CSA's requirements could create significant administrative burdens, particularly for small entities and volunteers. The tendency to delegitimize associative action is not limited to this new legislation but is part of a broader process of commodification of the non-market sector.[3] Another concern is the shift from structural subsidies to time-limited, project-based funding. While grants provide stability, allowing organizations to plan for the long term and maintain essential activities, the new system forces associations to constantly develop new projects to secure funding. This can lead to deviation from their original mission and a dispersal of resources. Applying for and managing project funding is time-consuming and requires specific proposal-writing skills. It therefore poses a greater challenge for small associations with limited resources. This increased dependence on project-based funding also makes associations vulnerable to political changes and contributes to their financial instability.

[1] CIVICUS (2023), Belgium: https://monitor.civicus.org/country/belgium/

[2] Culture.Be, Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles (2024), Dossier « Centenaire de la loi sur les ASBL : histoire et mutations: https://www.culture.be/activites/fete-de-la-fwb/index.php?eID=tx_nawsecuredl&u=0&g=0&hash=727fdbf0ab29384d2bbe34caa9086a861225a490&file=fileadmin/sites/culture/upload/culture_super_editor/culture_editor/images/Focus_2021/Focus2021_Centenaire_Loi_ASBL.pdf

[3] Culture.Be, Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles (2024), Dossier « Centenaire de la loi sur les ASBL : histoire et mutations: https://www.culture.be/activites/fete-de-la-fwb/index.php?eID=tx_nawsecuredl&u=0&g=0&hash=727fdbf0ab29384d2bbe34caa9086a861225a490&file=fileadmin/sites/culture/upload/culture_super_editor/culture_editor/images/Focus_2021/Focus2021_Centenaire_Loi_ASBL.pdf

Accès à l’énergie et précarité énergétique

Access to energy has declined overall in Belgium, and energy poverty has increased, the NGS reported. The energy crisis has caused a rise in energy bills, increasing the risk of over-indebtedness and financial difficulties for many vulnerable households in Brussels.[1] Fuel poverty in Belgium is closely linked to income poverty: 47.2% of households in fuel poverty are also at risk of poverty. This highlights the multidimensional nature of fuel poverty and the need for integrated approaches to support vulnerable households.[2]

In 2023, Belgium took measures to combat energy poverty, by increasing grants and subsidies for low- and middle-income households. These exceptional measures were designed to meet social needs arising from rising energy prices and to provide funding to guarantee the continuity of projects initiated with regional support. Measures also included exceptional initiatives to meet social needs linked to rising energy prices, to support the most vulnerable households, and to ensure that they can maintain adequate warmth in their homes.[3] [4] In addition to these issues, it is worth highlighting the increasing accessibility of green energy. Green energy has overtaken fossil fuels as a source of electricity in Belgium, although nuclear power remains the main source. This growth is attributable to increased investment in wind power, both onshore and offshore, and in solar panels, which has been encouraged by rising energy prices.[5] This transition to sustainable sources protects consumers from price fluctuations and promotes a future of more-resilient, environmentally friendly energy.

[1] Federal Government (2023), National Reform Program: https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/facc7756-eeed-45b8-9f9f-9b7453ddbb6b_en?filename=Belgium_NRP_2023_EN.pdf

[2] Fondation Roi Baudouin (2023), Baromètre de la précarité énergétique : Analyse et interprétation des résultats 2021: https://media.kbs-frb.be/fr/media/10490/Barom%C3%A8tre%20Pr%C3%A9carit%C3%A9%20Energ%C3%A9tiqu

[3] Federal Government (2023), National Reform Program: https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/facc7756-eeed-45b8-9f9f-9b7453ddbb6b_en?filename=Belgium_NRP_2023_EN.pdf

[4] European Commission (2023), 2023 Country Report – Belgium: https://economie.fgov.be/fr/themes/energie/prix-de-lenergie/tarif-social-pour-lenergie/tarif-social-pour-lenergie#:~:text=31%20d%C3%A9cembre%202022.-,vous%20devenez%20une%20personne%20ayant%20droit%20%C3%A0%20l'intervention%20major%C3%A9e,est%20aussi%20valable%20en%202023

[5] RTBF (2024), Production d’électricité en 2023 : le nucléaire reste numéro 1 mais les énergies renouvelables dépassent les énergies fossiles: https://www.rtbf.be/article/production-d-electricite-en-2023-le-nucleaire-reste-n-1-mais-lesenergies-renouvelables-depassent-les-energies-fossiles-11307464